Author: Alex Chan
You are working a particularly busy overnight solo coverage shift when a very sick 4-year old patient with respiratory distress begins desatting requiring urgent intubation. A team is quickly assembled and preparation is completed for the procedure. You begin attempting endotracheal tube insertion but after two failed attempts with direct laryngoscopy you ask for a bougie, and none is delivered. You ask again, and nothing. As you momentarily take your eyes off of the patient’s airway, you realize that a bougie was never gathered, and a nurse colleague is hurriedly tracking one down. As you move down your algorithm, you wonder how such a vital piece of equipment could have been missed during preparation…
The Hierarchy of Effectiveness
In a previous post, we discussed reporting patient safety events, and different forms of surveillance for detecting potentially unsafe practices in health care. However, once a patient safety event is reported and a need for change is identified, what are the options for intervention? Depending on the individual circumstances of the event, different approaches can be taken, from person-based interventions to systems based approaches, as summarized in Figure 1.(1)
On one end of the hierarchy, approaches that are the most systems based in nature, such as implementation of a new forcing function often have the highest leverage in preventing patient safety events, but can be challenging to implement. In contrast, person-based approaches such as educational sessions or employing new rules are easier to implement, but have a higher tendency to fail as they rely on individual attention and vigilance. One of the more effective levels in the hierarchy is the use of checklists as a tool for improving patient safety.
Checklists as a Tool for Improving Patient Safety
Checklists have been very effective in increasing the safety profile of high risk fields such as aviation, and nuclear power plants.(2) The use of checklists in medicine was widely popularized by Dr. Peter Pronovost who devised its use for the intensive care unit (ICU) where it decreased rates of central line associated bloodstream infections by 66%. This idea was a simple, and low cost solution to a problem that significantly contributed to morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs.3 Central line infections were once thought to be inevitable in the ICU, however with widespread adoption of the checklist approach, it resulted in extensive decreases in central line infections.
Other major milestones included the introduction of the WHO surgical safety checklists, and the implementation of checklists in anesthesia, and critical care, which led to significantly reduce morbidity and mortality.(4–8)
So why are checklists so effective? In a system with no shortage of complexities, the introduction of checklists allows complex, error-prone procedures and processes to be distilled into manageable, stepwise components. Notably, it prevents human factors such as memory lapses from leading to patient safety events.(9–12) In Dr. Gawande’s The Checklist Manifesto, he argues that checklist implementation saves us from error driven by ineptitude: having the knowledge and skills to complete the tasks at hand but failing to apply them consistently and correctly.(2)
Evidence Surrounding Checklist Usage in the ED
The ED’s fast pace, vulnerability to overcrowding, abundance of distractions, and complex patients makes the ED prone to cognitive overload leading to missed tasks and suboptimal performance.(13–16) However, this complex and error-prone environment theoretically makes the ED the perfect setting for checklists to exist.
Checklist utility in the ED is diverse, designed to facilitate patient monitoring, patient handovers, equipment checks, medication delivery, as well as preparation for invasive procedures.(16,17) However, compared to surgical specialties, the evidence surrounding checklist efficacy in the ED is relatively sparse. In the review of available studies, such as that conducted by Redfern et al. (2018) for example, implementation of an ED safety checklist in the UK was associated with faster times to obtain critical imaging and greater usage of tools to recognize deteriorating patients.(18) Likewise, the implementation of checklists in strenuous scenarios such as emergency endotracheal intubation was also associated with a potential improvement in outcomes and error reduction in multiple studies, though further studies are needed to provide insight into its efficacy.(19–21)
Elements of an Effective Checklist and Implementation
Prior literature outlines several keys to an effective checklist suggesting that effective checklists should, as summarized in Figure 2.(2,16,22,23)
Have a clear purpose in its development (e.g.,emergent pediatric intubations, prevention of central line infections).
Utilize pre-existing literature and/or best practises in its creation, such as the inclusion of specialty guidelines.
Be succinct in its intended method of use to facilitate use in stressful situations:
Include pertinent items that will have meaningful consequences if missed
The point of checklists are not to explain procedures or processes, but rather to remind its users of its steps
Its format should be rid of any clutter or distractions, and its wording exact
Have a clear pause point in which it is supposed to be used
Be sufficiently trialed in simulation scenarios prior to implementation to allow for appropriate development time and understanding of its functioning.
While checklists are not the most challenging intervention to implement on the hierarchy of effectiveness, there are logistical challenges that exist. Common challenges include:(22,24,25)
Resistance from staff, stemming from views that checklists are ineffective, or in some cases, redundant chores that slow down healthcare provision.
Lack of training or educational sessions for the proper usage and implementation of checklists.
Lack of organizational support.
Faults with the checklist itself.
Taking the additional steps of forming a panel of experts, engaging stakeholders and gathering feedback during its development process may allow the process to have the appropriate buy-in and organizational support it needs to succeed.
Case Resolution
You worked through your difficult airway algorithm and successfully intubated the patient and transferred them to the Pediatric ICU. You debriefed the event with your team and highlighted learning points. The event was appropriately reported, and at your next ED department meeting it was raised as a patient safety event. After consulting with prior literature and other patient safety experts, the department begins dedicating the time and resources to creating a pre-intubation checklist to ensure all necessary steps and equipment are appropriately addressed in the future.
Senior Editor: Ahmed Taher
Junior Editor: Sabrina Campbell
References
Beard P, Hoffman C, Ste-Marie M, et al. Incident Analysis Collaborating Parties. Canadian Incident Analysis Framework. Canadian Patient Safety Institute; 2012:0-148. https://www.patientsafetyinstitute.ca/en/toolsResources/IncidentAnalysis/Pages/incidentanalysis.aspx
Gawande A. London J Prim Care. 2010;3(2):124.
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